Volkswagen has admitted to cheating diesel emissions tests in the United States, sparking the biggest business crisis in its 78-year history.
Following are some of the costs the company could have to pay, excluding any potential drop in car sales or prices:
Car recalls
VW said on Sep 29 it would recall up to 11 million vehicles worldwide that were fitted with illegal software. Some analysts have said this could cost more than $6.5 billion.
Regulators
The US Environmental Protection Agency said on Sep 18 VW faced penalties of up to $18 billion, and Australia's competition regulator said on Oct 1 VW could face millions of dollars in fines if it was found to have misled local consumers.
The German transport ministry has said the company manipulated tests in Europe too and regulators across Europe and in parts of Asia and central America are investigating, though none have so far estimated likely penalties.
Nnational and local authorities
Analysts have said the company could face lawsuits under the US Clean Air Act, and penalties if it is found guilty of any criminal wrongdoing. California is preparing a major enforcement action against VW, the state's top air official said on Sep 24.
Harris County, Texas, on Sep 30 sued VW, accusing it of violating state environmental laws. It is seeking up to $25,000 per violation per day.
German prosecutors said on Sep 23 they were conducting a preliminary investigation into VW following a number of criminal complaints from citizens.
Prosecutors in several other countries have followed suit.
Dealer/consumer/investor lawsuits
Independent car dealerships sued VW in California on Sep 24 over losses they said they would incur following the company's admission. Attorneys at Keller Rohrback LLP said on Oct 1 they had filed seven nationwide class action lawsuits on behalf of plaintiffs in 43 states and Washington DC against VW.
Italian consumer group Codacons said on Sep 30 it had presented a class action lawsuit against VW, accusing it of deceiving car owners and potentially harming the environment.
Robbins Geller Rudman & Dowd LLP filed a class action suit against VW on Sep 25 on behalf of an institutional investor.
Some European shareholders said they were also considering claiming damages.
Subsidy clawbacks
Spain said on Sep 29 that VW had agreed to return state car purchase subsidies on vehicles fitted with rigged engines. The country had offered subsidies of 1,000 euros ($1,120) for energy efficient car purchases.
